Psyc 200 Midterm 1 (Holden Spring 2019)

Mind

-internal states, processes (thoughts and feelings) -the mind and mental states cannot be observed directly; they are inferred from behaviour

Critical thinking

-involves taking an active role, rather than simply receiving facts, and attempting to challenge it -boils down to a mindset of falsification; try to disprove claims or beliefs -think about what it would take to show a claim as false -you are a lawyer; how are you going to oppose this/cast a shadow of doubt? -alternate explanations? -quality of evidence? -credibility of the source?

Threats to internal validity: Placebo Effect

-A type of research participant bias -Placebo: a substance with no pharmacological effect -e.g. in drug studies, experimental group gets drug and control group gets a placebo (Injection of saline, a "fake" pill, or "sham" surgery) -Placebo effect is when, Sometimes, health of the control group improves simply because they expected the pill/surgery/injection to work -Expectations can be altered in a number of ways: -Size of pill, Dosage, What you think you're receiving, Morphine vs. Aspirin; placebos are about 50% as effective as either of these, Packaging, pill colour -Isn't limited to drug tests... -"healing" crystals -Placebo drunkenness -Placebo poison (called a "nocebo") -Lactose intolerance -Attempted overdose of anti-depressants -"Mozart Effect" -It's quite possible that someone does better simply because they expected to do so -So, if we see change, was it because of the Independent variable, or a placebo effect?

Sociocultural perspective: cultural component

-Culture: the enduring values, beliefs, behaviours, and traditions shared by a group of people, and passed on from generation to generation -Cultural norms: rules (usually unwritten) for acceptable/expected behaviour for group members -asks questions such as: How should women dress? Is it OK for girls to play sports? Arranged marriage? Would you consider marrying someone you didn't love? -It's easy to fall into the trap of assuming that "our way" is "normal" or "right"

Measuring Variables: Self-report and reports by others

-Ask people to report their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experiences, behaviour, etc -usually in the form of interviews, questionnaires -Hinges on participant's honesty -Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner, rather than admitting how one truly feels/behaves -SDB can be avoided by: -carefully wording questions -Ensuring participant anonymity & confidentiality -Over-Claiming Questionnaire - measures S.D.B

Correlation vs. Causation: Third variable problem

-Correlated variables may both be caused by another, 3rd variable, This leads to spurious (artificial) correlations e.g. amount of violence watched on TV correlates with the number of playground fights in a year -Perhaps children who fight a lot have a naturally violent temperament. -This might cause them to fight a lot AND cause them to be drawn to violent TV shows -We cannot know for certain what causes the relationship!

Correlation vs. Causation

-Correlation DOES NOT suggest causation -Correlations tell us if two variables are related, but we cannot know for certain, from a correlation, whether one causes the other -Two reasons why correlation ≠ causation; 1. Directionality Problem 2. Third Variable Problem

Operational definition

-Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure (or produce) it -Defines how our experiment will observe/measure abstract concepts

Validity of research: Internal validity

-Degree to which the experiment supports clear causal conclusions -If the experiment is designed carefully, then we have high internal validity -is threatened by: -research participant bias -placebo effect -researcher bias -confounding variables

Validity of research: External validity

-Degree to which the results can be generalized to other populations, settings, and conditions -Replication:Repeating an experiment to see if the original results are 'replicated' (duplicated) -Ideally, we want to replicate the results under slightly different conditions, or with different groups -effect of cell phones on driving safety in the ELDERY -effect of cell phones on driving safety on RURAL roads -effect of HANDS-FREE phones on driving safety -Replication leads to High External Validity, so it generalizes well -sometimes, many experiments have been conducted on a particular topic (e.g. cell phone use & driving safety) -meta analysis (analysis of studies) combines all the results of many studies into one conclusion -Cross-Cultural Replication: Repeating an experiment to see if the original results are 'replicated' (duplicated) across different cultures -Replication → High External Validity (generalizes well) -In general, if we cannot replicate the original results, this suggests low external validity -can lead us to new hypotheses -might mean that the original finding was a statistical fluke -might mean that the original research was somehow flawed

Experimental method: Between-subjects design

-Different groups of participants are assigned to each "level" of the independent variable Problem: need to ensure groups are equivalent -What if everyone with poor vision was in "cell phone" group? -What if everyone with little or no driving experience was in the control group? Solution: random assignment -Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any one group/level in the experiment -It does not eliminate differences between people, but it balances these differences between the groups -It helps ensure the different conditions/groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study

Experimental method: Within-subject designs

-Each participant is exposed to all the levels of the independent variable -a.k.a. Repeated-measures design -Means that vision, driving experience, etc. are all held constant across all conditions! Problem: sometimes the order of the conditions can make a difference -Practice effects? Boredom with the task? Solution: counterbalancing -The order of conditions is varied between people -Randomly assign people to different orders

Subdisciplines of Biopsychology

-Evolutionary psychology: looks at evolutions effect on minds and behaviour (eg. mating choice, problem solving) -Neuroscience: focus on brain processes & regions

Sociocultural perspective: cross-cultural psychology

-Examines how culture is passed on, and looks at the similarities and differences between people from different cultural backgrounds -Past research often ignored non-Western cultures -Even within Western cultures, heavy emphasis on middle- to upper-class groups -Also, typically an emphasis on white males -Kenneth Clark and Mamie Clark (1917-1983): Examined how discrimination and prejudice influenced the personality development of African-American children

Key concept: Reliability

-How consistent a measurement is A. Test-Retest Reliability: -Are scores stable over time? e.g. Weighing yourself 5x in a row → same # each time -IQ isn't perfect, but has decent test-retest reliability -IQ at age 9 correlates with age 40 (r ~ 0.7) B. Inter-Judge Reliability: -Would different people agree on the same scores for the same person's test? -Same scores = high inter-rater reliability C. Internal Consistency: -Do all parts of the "Verbal Reasoning" section seem to be measuring the same thing (i.e. correlate)? -Are all of the things that being tested related? -e.g. in math, word problems measure comprehension, not actual mathematic skill, therefore their internal consistency is not very high

Key concept: Validity

-How well a test measures what it's supposed to A. Construct Validity: -Does the test measure the construct of interest? to what extent? e.g. Construct = "intelligence" -Operational definition = scores on IQ test -Might anything other than intelligence affect scores? B. Content Validity: -Does the test measure all aspect of X (intelligence)? -IQ has low content validity e.g. don't use only addition problems for math score C. Criterion-Related Validity: -Does score correlate with something meaningful? e.g. IQ correlate with grades, job performance? -IQ is actually meaningful; IQ and Grades: -r ~ 0.6 for High School -r ~ 0.4 for University IQ and Jobs/Income/Lifespan: -r ~ 0.7 for IQ and Socioeconomic Status (SES) -Compare siblings (same enviro.): higher IQ (120) makes $18,000/yr higher salary than avg. IQ (100) -higher IQ → better job performance (esp. training) -higher IQ → longer life; recover faster from brain injury

Descriptive research: Case study

-In-depth analysis of one individual, a (small) group, or an event -Can use any of the methods of measuring variables (self-report/report by others, measuring overt behaviour, psychological measures, and physiological response) Advantages: -Great for rare phenomena -Can generate new ideas & hypotheses to be tested -Can challenge validity of scientific theories Disadvantages: -Not good for Cause & Effect; -in the case of Phineas Gage, Specific location of brain damage? or the fact that he got an iron rod to the face? Increased gambling, or decreased restraint? -Not easily generalized; -What would happen if someone was already a gambler? -Observer Bias; -Case studies often based on one person's observations -Exaggeration? Expectancy?

Measuring Variables: Physiological measures

-Includes heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, hormones, brain function, etc... (anything physiological) -We don't always know what these mean, though -e.g. what is the link between heart rate and emotion? is it Love? Fear?Excitement? Stress?

Cognitive perspective roots

-Influenced by: -Structuralism: basic elements of the mind -Functionalism: purpose of the mind -Gestalt Psychology: Wanted to know how the mind organizes elements into a unified whole or a "Gestalt" "The whole is more than the sum of its parts"

Descriptive research: Survey

-Information is obtained by administering questionnaires, surveys, interviews -e.g. Political polls -Or, ask about behaviours, experiences, attitudes... Advantages: -Efficient way of collecting lots of data -Can reveal changes in beliefs/habits over time Disadvantages: -Cannot determine Cause and Effect -Based on Self-Reports; -Social desirability bias -Interview bias -Inaccurate self-perceptions -People may misinterpret questions -Non-representative samples possible, even with random sampling

Humanism on dating shyness

-Maybe the person's sense of self-worth is too tied up in hopes of a romantic relationship -Need to focus more on who they actually want to be, rather than being defined by a relationship -This will lead to self-actualization, and confidence will arise from that

Cognitive Behaviourism

-More moderate, modern version of behaviourism that continues today -Suggested that cognitive processes (thoughts) were not completely off-limits -Albert Bandura (1925-) -Learning experiences and the environment govern our behaviour because they affect our thoughts/expectations -the "cognitive" part of "Cognitive Behaviourism"

Key concept: sampling

-Must have a representative sample -You usually can't measure/ask every single person in the group you are interested in (e.g. all Canadians) -population: The whole, big group -So, you measure/ask a subset of people in the hopes that they are indicative of the whole, big group (sample) -A representative sample reflects the important characteristics of the entire population e.g. Federal election poll to predict who will win Population of interest = all Canadian voters Sample: 500 voters from Quebec? from Alberta? No; must be spread Obtaining a Representative Sample: -Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected -e.g. We choose individuals using names from a hat, or computer selection of random numbers, or even random number tables

Experimental method

-One (or more) variables is manipulated to determine if it influences other variables -Manipulation makes this the only method that allows for conclusions about causes 1. Manipulate one (or more) variables -Independent variable: any variable that is manipulated by the experimenter -Experimenter varies it between people or across time 2. Measure the effect on other variable(s) -Dependent variable: the variable that is measured to see if the I.V. influences it -the "outcome" variable - it depends on the I.V. 3. Control extraneous factors -Control things that can affect the D.V. other than the I.V. -Want to avoid confounding variables (variables that mess with our experiment)

Sociocultural perspective on dating shyness

-Popular media depictions of male and female cultural ideals may make the person feel inadequate or undesirable (e.g. body image issues) -If male, cultural norms of assertiveness may have left him feeling even more inadequate

Measuring Variables: Measures of overt behaviour

-Record directly-observable behaviour -ie. Errors in learning a list of words, reaction time to brake (drinking & driving test), how quickly you seek help for someone having a seizure, how long an infant stares at something "interesting" Measurements must be reliable!! -Experimenters who observe behaviours must be trained to use a specific coding system (some kind of grading scale) -this ensures consistency between and within experimenters -Remember, empirical evidence must be systematic Measures should also be unobtrusive! -Observer Effect: We behave differently when we know we're watched -in order to counteract this, researchers can: -Disguise their presence -use hidden camera -Habituation may also help; process by which animals eventually ignore researcher presence -use Unobtrusive measures: use tests that aren't obvious about what's being measured (ie. Rating pleasantness of neutral pictures measures mood) -use Archival measures: existing records, documents (e.g. student class grades to evaluate the effectiveness of different teaching styles)

Descriptive research: Naturalistic observation

-Researcher observes behaviour in its natural setting -Typically relies on measuring overt behaviour -Requires an observational record (notes, video...) Advantages: -Provides rich description of behaviour in "real world" Disadvantages: -Not good for Cause & Effect; -Too many variables to know -Measurement bias, and Observer bias; -Expectations can colour or distort our perception or observations -Observer Effect must be accounted for; -Presence of researcher may affect behaviour -Possible Anthropomorphic error when researching animals; -we assign human qualities when researching animals when we don't know if that's true

Measuring Variables: Psychological measures

-Specialized, rigorously designed tests that measure different variables e.g. Personality tests "T/F: I prefer to be alone rather than attend social gatherings" -This psychological measure may also be considered a special type of Self-Report "What do you see in this (ambiguous) picture?" (inkblot test) -This is NOT self-report; the person is not telling you directly about themselves or their emotional state e.g. Intelligence Tests -We score intelligence based on test performance -the most common/dependable psychological measures bc they are rigorously maintained

Correlation coefficient: number

-Tells us how strongly the variables are related -zero means "no correlation" -Numbers near zero mean little to no correlation -Numbers approaching the extremes mean a very strong (to perfect) correlation

Threats to internal validity: Confounding variables

-Variables that are intertwined with the IV -Prevents us from knowing whether it was the IV or the confounding variable that actually caused the effect e.g. the "Mozart effect" -Group A listens to Mozart sonata -Group B listens to relaxation instructions -Group C gets silence -the conclusion was that listening to Mozart makes you smarter (the supposed IV is listening to mozart) -however, there were confounding variables such as -alert vs. drowsy -music -peppy (makes you more alert) -The 3rd variable problem in correlation studies is a similar idea -The idea is that "A isn't directly related to B" but rather they are linked by some other factor e.g. ice cream and drowning

Correlation coefficient: Negative correlation

-When one variable increases, the other tends to decrease -Or, when one variable decreases, the other increases

Correlation coefficient: Positive correlation

-When one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well -Also, when one variable decreases, so does the other

Beginnings of psychology: Structuralism

-Wilhelm Wundt, founder, opens the first psychology lab in 1879 -holds that the mind can be studied by breaking it down into its tiniest components (breaking everything down to the equivalent of protons, neutrons, and electrons) -asks "what are the basic elements of consciousness, and how do they combine?" -invents new method called Introspection (looking within) where people are trained to reflect on their own sensations and thoughts -wildly unscientific; not really validating anything and peoples subjective experiences are very different -brought to the US by Wundt's student, Edward Titchener "What are the basic pieces of the mind and how do they fit?"

Basic science

-a quest for knowledge purely for its own sake -it is not "easy"; we are just seeking out knowledge for its own sake "how accurate are our memories?" "what factors predict likelihood of depression?"

Correlational Research

-a research technique in which two (or more) variables are measured to determine if they are related in a systematic way -We don't manipulate anything! -Correlation: how well can one variable can be predicted by another -e.g. If I know how much (violent) TV a child watches, how well can I guess their aggressiveness? -Conversely, if I know how aggressive a child is, how well can I guess how much (violent) TV they watch? -correlation has to use a specific variable that has an order to it; you cant order eye colour, sex, ethnicity etc. because you cant say shit like "as I increased in gender"

Behaviour

-actions or responses that can be directly observed -behaviour includes involuntary responses as well (ie. heart rate, releasing stress hormones, etc)

Biopsychology

-aka biological psychology -focus on the biological basis of behaviour -looks at the influence of brain processes, genes, and hormones on actions, thoughts and feelings -asks questions such as: "Whats going on in the brain when someone is hearing voices?" "Do hormones affect aggression? Ability to think clearly?"

Inferential statistics

-allow us to determine whether differences between groups or levels of the independent variable are "real" and "big enough" differences -Is a difference of 150 ms a big or small difference? -Was it a fluke, or a real difference? -Typically, statistical significance defined as "the result would happen by chance in less than 5 in 100 experiments" -Replication (repeating the experiment with similar results) makes conclusions stronger -A Meta-Analysis combines the results of many studies on the same topic

Variables

-any characteristic or factor that can vary/change -any measure, event, or state that can vary -ie. Age, sex, height, hair colour, GPA, income, happiness, chocolate consumption -vary between different people -may also vary within a given person over time -Psychological variables: ie. self-esteem, stress, happiness, doubt, intelligence, memory accuracy, learning ability, language performance, hormone levels, neurotransmitter release, behaviour...

Biological perspective: evolutionary psychology

-applies the theory of natural selection (by Darwin) to behaviour -certain heritable traits make us more likely to survive and reproduce; this trait will then become more common over generations -essentially says that humans behaved physically, but also mentally and behaviourally -those with adaptive psychological or mental traits/abilities (ie. tool making, spatial memory, capacity to learn and solve problems) passed them on

Sociocultural perspective: social component

-asks "How does the presence of other people affect behaviour, thoughts, and feelings?" -Includes: -actual, physical presence -ie. You accidentally find yourself amongst a crowd of "Beliebers" when you are not a fan -implied presence -ie. Dressing up to impress your upcoming date -imagined presence -ie. "What would my mother say if she could see me now??"

Why is science needed in psychology?

-because of faulty thinking, for which we have three reasons: 1) Failure to consider alternative explanations 2) Confirmation bias: we pay attention to things that confirm pre-existing beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence, particularly if our beliefs are strongly held -ie. Death penalty opinion experiment 3) We use Mental shortcuts that don't always work -ie. Geography mental shortcuts

Threats to internal validity: Researcher Bias

-changes in participant behaviour caused by the unintended influence of researcher e.g. researcher accidentally drops hints or asks "are you certain?" for one group but not the other... -May hint at the expected results, and participants may conform to expectations e.g. professor may believe that certain students are problematic and others bright -By treating them differently, creates a self-fulfilling prophecy -Can be avoided by performing a Double-Blind Study -Neither the Research Participants NOR the person giving them the drug knows whether the participant is in the experimental or the control group -i.e. neither know if the person is getting the "real" drug, or the placebo - both are "blind" -Research assistant only knows that "these are Bob's pills. And these are Mary's."

Threats to internal validity: Researcher Participant bias

-changes in participant behaviour caused by the unintended influence of their OWN expectations e.g. researcher hypothesizes that amphetamines aid learning -Researcher tells participants hypothesis before running experiment... -Results: drug group did better. -Was it the drug?? Or was it because people expected to perform better? -Can be avoided by performing a Single-Blind Study -Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or the control group e.g. they don't know if they are receiving the "real" drug, or the placebo -Participants are "blindly" taking a pill - not knowing if it's the real thing or not. -Now, both groups should have the same levels of expectations for the drug...

***Exam question: Two psychologists wish to research the possibility of low levels of certain neurotransmitters being responsible for symptoms of depression. What subfields of psychology do they belong to?

-clinical psychology and biopsychology

Behavioural perspective

-emphasizes the study of overt, observable behaviours -directly opposes the "mentalism" of structuralism, functionalism, and psychodynamics (someone else's consciousness/mind is not observable so there is no way to study it empirically) -therefore psychology should only focus on behaviour -our environment (past and present) governs behaviour (our past experiences, how we were raised, etc.)

Cognitive perspective

-emphasizes thinking, and mental processes -directly opposes radical behaviourism -Humans are "Information Processors" whose behaviour is governed by thought -the Mind is a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information -Interest in the mind died out with Behaviourism, but started to come back in the 1940s-1950s -WWII: -Radar and attention -Fighter plane "crashes" -Children's language and development: -Noam Chomsky -Jean Piaget -Cognitive revolution: Interest really took off in '60s and '70s

3 levels of analysis: interaction between biological and environmental

-epigenetics: our social environments can influence which genes are expressed ie. orangutans -babies raised within enriched environments have increased brain development

Clinical psychology

-examine mental disorders and help people to overcome them -asks questions such as: "What treatments work best for phobias?" "How can we support people with PTSD?"

Industrial-Organizational (IO) psychology

-examines behaviour in the workplace -focuses on more business related topics (leadership, teamwork, job satisfaction, work motivation, performance, stress) -people in this field are often consultants for companies -asks questions such as: "What kind of tests will help us identify the best applicant for a job?" "How can we increase motivation/satisfaction for our employees?"

Biological perspective

-examines how brain processes, genes, bodily functions and evolution regulate behaviour -behavioural neuroscience, behavioural genetics, evolutionary psychology

Biological perspective: behavioural genetics

-examines how genetics can influence behaviours -suggests a genetic basis for psychological traits -example 1: breeding animals for behavioural traits, not just physical ones (ie. tame vs. wild foxes) -example 2: twin studies; identical twins raised in separate households have greater behavioural similarities than fraternal twins raised in the same households

Sociocultural perspective

-examines how the social environment and culture influence behaviour, thoughts, and feelings -Other perspectives usually assume behaviours are more-or-less universal

Developmental psychology

-examines human physical, psychological, and social development across an entire lifespan -asks questions such as: "How do different parenting styles psychologically affect children?" "How old does a child have to be before they can reliably be used as a witness in court?" "How does impulse control change through adolescence and into adulthood?" "Does mental capacity change in the elderly?"

Biological perspective: behavioural neuroscience

-examines the brain processes underlying behaviour, thought, feelings, etc. -Karl Lashley: -found that lesions (damage) in specific brain regions impaired specific functions (e.g. memory) -suggests that specific areas are specialized for specific functions

Modern Cognitive Psychology

-focuses on "higher level" mental processes -Reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, language, attention, memory; "thought processes" -e.g. mental shortcuts, logical reasoning, etc... -The mind processes information, guides behavior -Cognitive Neuroscience: -Focus on brain regions involved in different mental tasks -Combines Cognitive & Biological

Experimental psychology

-focuses on basic processes like basic learning, sensation & perception, and motivation (ones that we are very confident are present in animals as well) -much of the research done in this area is with non-human animals (rats, pigeons) -even though this area is called "experimental", almost all areas of psychology involve experiments -ask questions such as: "Is vision different in animals that live entirely in rooms with horizontal stripes versus vertical stripes?" -experiment with the cats raised in vertical and horizontal striped rooms: cats raised in rooms with vertical striped walls could weave through the legs of chairs, but couldn't find the comfy seat of the chair bc they were blind to horizontal things, and vice versa for the cats raised in horizontal striped rooms "Are phobias caused by classical conditioning?"

Personality psychology

-focuses on personality traits -asks questions such as: "Are there core personality traits?" -e.g., outgoing/shy, conscientious/impulsive, sympathetic/cold -core personality traits are like colours; can we combine perfect ratios of each to get the entire rainbow of personality? "How do different traits relate to one other?" "Can we develop tests that measure personality?"

Humanism

-founded by Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers (1940s) -emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization -Directly opposes the "determinism" of Psychodynamics and Behaviourism -Determinism: behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control -Psychodynamics: behaviour determined by unconscious conflicts -Behaviourism: behaviour determined by environmental consequences, past experiences -stresses FREE WILL in making choices -holds that humans have an innate drive towards self-actualization -Self-actualization: overcoming obstacles to reach one's individual potential -Only we define what our own full potential is -Happy when we are heading toward it -Miserable when our environments frustrate efforts to reach full potential -had less of an impact than Psychodynamics, Behaviourism, and others -Still seen in Positive Psychology movement (which studies human strengths, fulfillment rather than "what's wrong with the world") -Contributed methods used in psychotherapy (introduced ideas of self-image, and self-evaluation, and self-esteem) -key words: self-actualization, self-(anything)

Radical Behaviourism

-founded by B.F. Skinner -believed that we should never resort to internal events (e.g. "thinking" or "feeling") as explanations of behaviour Food (stimulus) → Eating (response) -Can describe, understand, and predict behaviour without guessing about the animal "feeling hungry" -Behaviour is governed by lawful principles (past experiences dictate future responses) "A person does not act on the world; the world acts upon him." -free will is an illusion -"the behaviour of the human organism is no more free than its digestion" -published mostly in the 40s-70s -Developed Behaviour modification techniques: -Manipulate the environment to increase positive behaviours and decrease negative ones (e.g. Can teach pigeons to play ping-pong!) -Skinner believed Positive Reinforcement could be used to create a designed (utopian) culture by encouraging positive, pro-social behaviour -Punishment doesn't teach "correct" response -Misguided rewards encourage problem-behaviour

Behaviourism

-founded by John B. Watson in 1913 (often known as the Father of Behaviourism) - believed that introspection is unscientific -Only observable behaviour (not unobservable inner consciousness or sub-consciousness) is acceptable for scientific study -"observable behaviour" = any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable behaviour -Ivan Pavlov: "We are the products of our learning environment" -British Empiricists: "We start as blank slates" -Edward Thorndike: "When behaviours are rewarded/punished they become more/less likely" -As such, we are no different from animals. So, can study animals to understand human behaviour -in general this approach led to effective treatments for many psychological disorders -dominated psychology for decades, and was a major reason it moved from being a philosophy to a true science

Philosophical roots of psychology: Mind-Body Dualism

-founded by René Descartes -the mind and body are fundamentally different -mind = immaterial, spiritual entity -body = physical portion (including brain) -no research on the brain could ever unravel the mysteries of the non-physical mind

Psychodynamic perspective

-founded by Sigmund Freud; was an acclaimed physician who cured baffling cases through hypnosis and free association where patients would remember and work through traumatic events -looks at the causes of behaviour at the unconscious level -individual interviews -psychoanalysis: analysis of internal, usually unconscious forces

Philosophical roots of psychology: Monism

-founded by Thomas Hobbes -mind and body are one -mental events = brain events -british empiricists (john locke) said "scientific observation is how we gain knowledge" -if the mind and body are one, we can scientifically study the brain/behaviour to understand the mind!

Beginnings of psychology: Functionalism

-founded by William James -wanted to describe the adaptive (evolutionary) function of the mind -Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution (stressed how adaptation helped organisms survive and reproduce) -naturalistic observation: observing subjects in their natural environments -modern areas such as IO psychology and educational psychology are rooted in this "What does the mind do and how is it useful?"

3 levels of analysis: interaction between biological and psychological

-imagine favourite food →release digestive enzymes -people with "something to live for" often recover from severe illness faster and have a better prognosis than those who don't

Science's role in psychology

-minimizes the pitfalls of faulty thinking -involves gathering and evaluating empirical evidence to answer questions and test ideas about the worlds -empirical evidence: evidence gained through experience and observation -observations must also be systematic: performed consistently and fairly, so it is objective - the opinions of family and friends, random internet people, tv sitcoms, secular and religious ideas, cultural stereotypes and idioms, and personal observations are all empirical, but they are not systematic!

Experimental method: experimental vs. control groups

-most experiments have these two conditions -control receives no treatment -experimental receives some treatment -there can be multiple levels of the experimental condition

Example: operational definition of exam stress at the three levels of analysis

-physiological measure: cortisol levels, adrenaline levels, heart rate, galvanic skin response (sweating), breathing rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, muscle tension -psychological measure: stress questionnaire, fidgeting, mood questionnaire -environmental measure: location of exam, difficulty of exam, time allotted, noise, number of people writing/leaving, commute time, injury, smell of the room, weighting of the exam (25% of grade vs. 50%), parental expectations

Descriptive research

-pursues the most basic goal of psychology: to describe -describes how people and animals behave (especially in natural settings, 'real life') Methods: -Case Studies -Naturalistic Observation -Survey

Applied science

-research is designed to solve specific practical problems -places more of an emphasis on the fourth goal of psychology, influence/control "how do we improve reliability of witness testimony?" "how do we help depressed individuals?"

Modern Psychodynamic Theory

-still looks at the interaction of the unconscious and conscious mind -less emphasis on childhood sexuality and aggression, more on family/caregiver relationships -sometimes called the "Neo-Freudian" perspective

Cognitive psychology & its subdiscipline

-studies "higher" mental processes such as memory, judgement and decision making, problem solving, mental imagery, attention, creativity -most animals don't have these processes, but humans do -asks questions such as: "How do i best remember info for a test?" "Is creativity really a eureka phenomenon?" "What kinds of mental short-cuts do people use when making decisions?" -Psycholinguistics: an area within cognitive psychology that studies linguistic processes -asks questions like: "What is the best way to learn how to read?"

Social psychology

-studies cognition, emotion, and behaviour towards others -focus on how people influence one another, behave in groups, and form impressions and attitudes (ie. stereotypes) -asks questions such as: "Why do we like some people and not others?" "How do people in relationships behave?" "What are the root causes of racism?" "What makes a good advertisement?"

Freud's Psychodynamic Theory

-suggested that the unconscious mind was the thing causing these physical symptoms 1) humans have inborn sexual and aggressive drives which are punished in childhood 2) this punishment leads to anxiety when we feel these urges in childhood 3) to limit anxiety, we repress these unacceptable urges, feelings, and memories into the unconscious areas of the mind 4) this leads to unconscious conflict: our natural urges vs. a desire to suppress them hence, psycho-dynamic -freud was extremely influential; criticized for his focus on childhood sexuality and aggression, ideas difficult to test empirically -some of his ideas were supported through research, others refuted but still they stimulated research and drove the science forward

The Scientific Method

-systematic observation: use a specific test that is scored as objectively as possible (ie. IQ test), in a controlled environment -gather empirical evidence: administer the same test to individuals of different ages (or to the same individuals every x years) -use statistics: helps to determine whether small differences are just random fluctuations or real differences

Psychology

-the scientific study of behaviour and the mind -a diverse field of study with many different subfields/specializations -psychology is linked all of these subfields and there is much overlap -psychology also links to works in other fields; -creation of artificial intelligence requires computer science, engineering, and psychology -evolutionary basis of mate choice is rooted in anthropology and psychology -studies of cultural differences in cooperative vs. individualistic behaviour are sociology and psychology

Non-experimental methods of research

-there are studies that are experiments and ones that are not -includes descriptive research and correlational methods

Correlation vs. Causation: Directionality problem

-uncertainty regarding which variable causes changes in the other e.g. positive correlation between amount of TV watched & number of playground fights in a year -Does watching violence on TV cause kids to fight? -Or, does fighting wear them out and cause them to watch TV? e.g. positive correlation between attractiveness and happiness. -attractiveness makes people happy -Or, happy people smile more and others find it attractive

4 goals of psychology

1) DESCRIBE how people and animals behave 2) EXPLAIN and UNDERSTAND the causes of these behaviours 3) PREDICT how people and animals will behave under certain conditions 4) INFLUENCE or CONTROL behaviour through knowledge and controlling the causes in order to enhance human welfare

3 levels of analysis

1) biological level -brain processes, genetic influences, hormone levels, basic needs 2) psychological level -personal thoughts, feelings, motives 3) environmental level -past and current physical and social environment -psychology covers all levels of analysis and their interaction -not nature or nurture, both work together

Why do correlational research?

1. Can't ethically or practically control some variables -e.g. can't change a person's height, religious affiliation, intelligence, personality, popularity... -... but we can measure them, and see if they relate to other variables 2. Even without causation, can still use correlations to make predictions -i.e. if 2 variables are strongly correlated, then knowing someone's score on either one allows us to predict their score on the other -e.g. high school GPA or SAT scores predict University success

Scientific Attitudes

1. Curiosity: psychologists are always asking questions related to psychology's 4 goals; describe, explain, predict, influence 2. Skepticism: "What is the evidence? Is there another, better explanation?" 3. Open-Mindedness: follow the evidence wherever it leads us; even if it goes against one's own (initial) beliefs

Steps in the Scientific Process

1. Identify a question of interest, and form a hypothesis (an idea that you can test; often a specific prediction aka an "if-then" statement) 2. Design the study (Includes selecting research method used) 3. Collect data 4. Analyze data, draw tentative conclusions 5. Report findings, build body of knowledge; -Conduct further research, develop new hypotheses -"Are there other things that might affect our results?" -Develop Theories; Much broader than hypotheses (integrate many experimental findings to explain a broad range of observations/behaviours) -Theories create a whole network of predictions

Characteristics of good theories

1. Incorporates existing facts and observations into a single, broad framework and organizes information meaningfully 2. Generates new, testable hypotheses/predictions, makes theories Self-Correcting -If new research supports these predictions , we gain confidence in the theory -If these predictions are falsified , we modify (or discard) the theory 3. Conforms to Law of Parsimony: K.I.S.S. (keep it simple stupid) -If 2 equally-good theories, the simpler one is better -side note: Theories are never regarded as absolute truth; even if no-one has falsified a certain theory, it doesn't mean that no-one ever will.

Key Concepts in Psychological Testing

1. Reliability -How consistent a measurement is 2. Validity -How well a test measures what it's supposed to measure 3. Sampling -The procedures we use to choose who takes the test (and how well this matches our goal for generalizing) 4. Standardization -Define controlled testing procedures -Developing norms

Correlation method

1. Researcher measures one variable -e.g. hours of violent TV programs watched per week 2. Researcher measures a second variable -e.g. number of playground fights per semester 3. Researcher statistically determines whether the two variables are related -Does the amount of violent TV watched relate to the number of playground fights per semester? -Calculate a Correlation Coefficient (r) (Statistic indicating the strength & direction of the relationship)

Measuring Variables: 4 methods

1. Self-reports and reports by others 2. Measures of overt behaviour 3. Psychological measures 4. Physiological measures

Key concept: standardization

A. Define Controlled Testing Procedures: -Everyone should take the test under the same conditions B. Developing Norms -Normal or "bell" curve for different populations -How many questions does the average 20-year-old get correct? Or the average 80-year-old? -Can know where your scores is, relative to others

Behaviourism on dating shyness

Behaviourism: asks someone out → rejected (unpleasant consequence) → stops asking people out (shyness) Cognitive Behaviourism: asks someone out → rejected (unpleasant consequence) → expectation of future rejection → stop asking people out (shyness)

"She has been reinforced for it in the past."

Behaviourist

Experimental method: Between-subjects design vs. Within-subjects design

Between-Subjects Design: -a.k.a. Between Groups Design -Different groups of participants are assigned to each "level" of the independent variable -e.g. 50% of people are control group 50% of people are experimental group Within-Subjects Design: -a.k.a. Repeated Measures Design -Each participant is exposed to all the levels of the independent variable (everyone is part of all the groups!!) -e.g. test all people talking and not talking on cell

"The neurons on her motor strip fired."

Biological

"She thought about it, and decided she wanted to."

Cognitive

Psychodynamics on dating shyness: Freud vs. Modern Psychodynamics

Freud: -the person is unconsciously afraid of their sexual impulses which leads to them avoiding situations where they'd have to confront these urges Modern psychodynamics: -the person felt their parents were disapproving/rejecting so they now unconsciously fear and expect rejection

Cognitive perspective on dating shyness

How they think about dating → faulty conclusions -Pay attention only to (small) negatives, not any positives → incorrectly conclude date going poorly -Remember the date as having gone worse than it did -May think that date's distractedness was because of personal failures ("I was boring"), rather than something about the date (e.g. bad day at work, father was taken to the hospital, etc...).

"It doesn't matter; she isn't human!"

Humanism

"She has a subconscious death wish."

Psychodynamic

"It all depends; is it an Asian, European, or South American one?"

Sociocultural

***Exam question: Two psychologists wish to research how cooperation changes with age. What subfields of psychology do they belong to?

social psychology and developmental psychology